Arkeoloġija

L-arkeoloġija hija l-istudju xjentifiku tal-attività umana permezz tal-irkupru u l-analiżi tal-kultura materjali. Reġistru arkeoloġiku jikkonsisti mill-artefatti, l-arkitettura, il-bijofatti jew l-ekofatti, is-siti, u l-pajsaġġi kulturali. L-arkeoloġija tista' titqies kemm bħala xjenza soċjali kif ukoll bħala fergħa tal-umanitajiet. Fl-Ewropa spiss titqies jew bħala dixxiplina jew inkella bħala sottoqasam ta' dixxiplini oħra, filwaqt li fl-Amerka ta' Fuq l-arkeoloġija hija sottoqasam tal-antopoloġija.

Tim ta' arkeologi jaħdmu fl-iskavi f'Ruma, l-Italja

L-arkeologi jistudjaw il-preistorja u l-istorja umana, mill-iżvilupp tal-ewwel għodod tal-ġebel f'Lomekwi fil-Lvant tal-Afrika 3.3 miljun sena ilu sal-aħħar deċennji. L-arkeoloġija hija distinta mill-paleontoloġija, li hija l-istudju tal-fdalijiet tal-fossili. L-arkeoloġija hija partikolarment importanti biex nitgħallmu dwar soċjetajiet preistoriċi, li dwarhom ma hemm l-ebda tagħrif bil-miktub. Il-preistorja tinkludi iktar minn 99 % tal-imgħoddi tal-bniedem, mill-Paleolitiku sal-litteriżmu fis-soċjetajiet madwar id-dinja. L-arkeoloġija għandha diversi għanijiet, li jvarjaw mill-fehim tal-istorja kulturali, għar-rikostruzzjoni tal-istili ta' ħajja tal-imgħoddi, għad-dokumentazzjoni u l-ispjegazzjoni tat-tibdil fis-soċjetajiet umani maż-żmien. It-terminu "arkeoloġija" oriġina mill-Grieg u litteralment ifisser "l-istudju tal-istorja tal-qedem".

Filmat dwar ix-xogħlijiet differenti fl-irkupru u fl-analiżi arkeoloġiċi

Id-dixxiplina tinvolvi l-istħarriġ, l-iskavi u eventwalment l-analiżi tad-data li tinġabar biex wieħed jitgħallem iktar dwar l-imgħoddi. F'ambitu wiesa', l-arkeoloġija tiddependi fuq ir-riċerka bejn dixxiplini differenti.

L-arkeoloġija żviluppat mill-antikwarjaniżmu fl-Ewropa matul is-seklu 19, u minn dak iż-żmien saret dixxiplina pprattikata madwar id-dinja kollha. L-arkeoloġija ntużat min-nazzjonijiet u mill-istati biex jinħolqu viżjonijiet partikolari tal-imgħoddi. Mill-iżvilupp bikri tagħha, żviluppaw diversi sottodixxiplini speċifiċi tal-arkeoloġija, inkluż l-arkeoloġija marittima, l-arkeoloġija femminista u l-arkeoastronomija. Barra minn hekk, ġew żviluppati bosta tekniki xjentifiċi differenti biex jgħinu fl-investigazzjoni arkeoloġika. Minkejja dan, illum il-ġurnata, l-arkeologi jiffaċċjaw bosta problemi, bħall-psewdoarkeoloġija, is-serq tal-artefatti, nuqqas ta' interess pubbliku, u l-oppożizzjoni għall-iskavi ta' fdalijiet umani.

Biblijografija

·        Aldenderfer, M.S.; Maschner, H.D.G., eds. (1996), Anthropology, Space, and Geographic Information Systems, New York: Oxford University Press

·        Ascher, R. (1961), "Analogy in archaeological interpretation", Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 317–25, JSTOR 3628943

·        Ascher, R. (1961), "Experimental Archeology", American Anthropologist, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 793–816, doi:10.1525/aa.1961.63.4.02a00070

·        Billman, B.R.; Feinman, G. (1999), Settlement Pattern Studies in the Americas—Fifty Years Since Virú, Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press

·        Binford, L. (1962), "Archaeology as Anthropology", American Antiquity, Society for American Archaeology, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 217–25, doi:10.2307/278380, JSTOR 278380, S2CID 162242910

·        Denning, K. (2004), "The Storm of Progress' and Archaeology for an Online Public", Internet Archaeology, vol. 15

·        Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999), The Cambridge Illustrated History of China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43519-2, OCLC 223427870

·        Fash, William (2001), "Archaeology", in David L. Carrasco (ed.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures, vol. 1, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 25–35, ISBN 9780195108156, OCLC 82141470

·        Flannery, K.V. (1967), "Culture History v. Culture Process: A Debate in American archaeology", Scientific American, vol. 217, no. 2, pp. 119–22, doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0867-119

·        Flannery, K.V. (1982), "The Golden Marshalltown: A Parable for the Archaeology of the 1980s", American Anthropologist, vol. 84, no. 2, pp. 265–278, doi:10.1525/aa.1982.84.2.02a00010

·        Fraser, Julius Thomas; Francis C. Haber (1986), Time, Science, and Society in China and the West, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press

·        Glascock, M.D.; Neff, H.; Stryker, K.S. & Johnson, T.N. (1994), "Sourcing Archaeological Obsidian by an Abbreviated NAA Procedure", Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, vol. 180, pp. 29–35, doi:10.1007/BF02039899, S2CID 97455573

·        Gifford-Gonzalez, D.P.; Damrosch, D.B.; Damrosch, D.R.; Pryor, J. & Thunen, R.L. (1985), "The Third Dimension in Site Structure: An Experiment in Trampling and Vertical Dispersal", American Antiquity, vol. 50, no. 4, pp. 803–18, doi:10.2307/280169, JSTOR 280169, S2CID 163218164

·        Gladfelter, B.G. (1977), "Geoarchaeology: The Geomorphologist and Archaeology", American Antiquity, Society for American Archaeology, vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 519–38, doi:10.2307/278926, JSTOR 278926, S2CID 163453920

·        Gould, R. (1971a), "The Archaeologist as Ethnographer: A Case from the Western Desert of Australia", World Archaeology, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 143–177, doi:10.1080/00438243.1969.9979499

·        Gould, R.; Koster, D.A. & Sontz, A.H.L. (1971b), "The Lithic Assemblage of the Western Desert Aborigines of Australia", American Antiquity, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 149–69, doi:10.2307/278668, JSTOR 278668, S2CID 163617121

·        Gould, R.; Yellen, J. (1987), "Man the Hunted: Determinants of Household Spacing in Desert and Tropical Foraging Societies", Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, vol. 6, p. 77, doi:10.1016/0278-4165(87)90017-1

·        Haviland, William A.; Prins, Harald E.L.; McBride, Bunny; Walrath, Dana (2010), Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge (13th ed.), Cengage Learning, ISBN 978-0-495-81082-7

·        Hinshaw, J. (2000), Ethnobotanical and Archaeobotanical Relationships: A Yuman Case Study, Salinas: Coyote Press, pp. 3–7, 38–45

·        Hodder, I. (1982), Symbols in Action, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

·        Hodder, I. (1985), "Post-Processual Archaeology", in Schiffer, M.B. (ed.), Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, New York: Academic Press

·        Hodder, I., ed. (1987), The Archaeology of Contextual Meaning, New York: Cambridge University Press

·        Hodder, I. (1990), "Style as Historical Quality", in Hastorf, M.C.A.C. (ed.), The Uses of Style in Archaeology, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

·        Hodder, I. (1991), "Interpretive Archaeology and Its Role", American Antiquity, Society for American Archaeology, vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 7–18, doi:10.2307/280968, JSTOR 280968, S2CID 163936790

·        Hodder, I. (1992), Theory and Practice in Archaeology, London: Routeldge

·        Kuznar, L, ed. (2001), Ethnoarchaeology of Andean South America, Ann Arbor: International Monographs in Prehistory

·        Miller, D.; Tilley, C. (1984), "Ideology, Power and Prehistory: An Introduction", in Miller, D.; Tilley, C. (eds.), Ideology, Power, and Prehistory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-25526-4, OCLC 241599209

·        Miller, D.; Rowlands, M.; Tilley, C., eds. (1989), Dominion and Resistance, New York: Routledge

·        Ogundele, S.O. (2005), "Ethnoarchaeology of Domestic Space and Spatial Behaviour Among the Tiv and Ungwai of Central Nigeria", African Archaeological Review, vol. 22, pp. 25–54, doi:10.1007/s10437-005-3158-2, S2CID 145452535

·        Pauketat, T.R. (2001), "Practice and History in Archaeology: An Emerging Paradigm", Anthropological Theory, vol. 1, pp. 73–98, doi:10.1177/14634990122228638

·        Renfrew, C.; Bahn, P.G. (1991), Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice, London: Thames and Hudson Ltd., ISBN 978-0-500-27867-3, OCLC 185808200

·        Saraydar, S.; Shimada, I. (1971), "A Quantitative Comparison of Efficiency Between A Stone Axe and A Steel Axe", American Antiquity, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 216–217, doi:10.2307/278680, JSTOR 278680, S2CID 163927190

·        Saraydar, S.C.; Shimada, I. (1973), "Experimental Archaeology: A New Outlook", American Antiquity, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 344–50, doi:10.2307/279722, JSTOR 279722, S2CID 163223665

·        Sellet, F.; Greaves, R. & Yu, P.-L. (2006), Archaeology and Ethnoarchaeology of Mobility, Gainesville: University Press of Florida

·        Shanks, M.; Tilley, C. (1987), Reconstructing Archaeology, New York: Cambridge university Press

·        Shanks, M.; Tilley, C. (1988), Social Theory and Archaeology, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, ISBN 978-0-7456-0184-7, OCLC 16465065

·        Shanks, M. (1991), "Some recent approaches to style and social reconstruction in classical archaeology", Archaeological Review from Cambridge, vol. 10, pp. 164–74

·        Shanks, M. (1993), "Style and the design of a perfume jar from an Archaic Greek city state", Journal of European Archaeology, vol. 1, pp. 77–106, doi:10.1179/096576693800731190

·        Shott, M.J.; Sillitoe, P. (2005), "Use life and curation in New Guinea experimental used flakes", Journal of Archaeological Science, vol. 32, no. 5, pp. 653–663, doi:10.1016/j.jas.2004.11.012

·        Tassie, G J.; Owens, L.S. (2010), Standards of Archaeological Excavations: A Fieldguide to the Methology, Recording Techniques and Conventions, London: GHP, ISBN 978-1-906137-17-5

·        Taylor, W.W. (1948), A Study of Archaeology, Menasha: American Anthropological Association, ISBN 978-0-906367-12-4, OCLC 9714935

·        Tilley, Christopher, ed. (1993), Interpretive Archaeology, Oxford: Berg, ISBN 978-0-85496-842-8, OCLC 185494001

·        Trigger, B.G. (1989), A History of Archaeological Thought, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

·        Watters, M.R. (1992), Principles of Geoarchaeology: A North American Perspective, Tucson: The University of Arizona Press

·        Watters, M.R. (2000), "Alluvial stratigraphy and geoarchaeology in the American Southwest", Geoarchaeology, vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 537–57, doi:10.1002/1520-6548(200008)15:6<537::AID-GEA5>3.0.CO;2-E

·        Willey, G.R. (1953), Prehistoric Settlement Patterns in the Virú Valley, Perú, Washington DC

·        Willey, G. (1968), Settlement Archaeology, Palo Alto: National Press

·        Wylie, A. (1985), "The Reaction Against Analogy", in Schiffer, Michael B. (ed.), Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, Orlando, FL: Academic Press, pp. 63–111

·        Yellen, J.; Harpending, H. (1972), "Hunter-Gatherer Populations and Archaeological Inference", World Archaeology, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 244–53, doi:10.1080/00438243.1972.9979535, PMID 16468220

·        Yellen, J. (1977), Archaeological Approaches to the Present, New York: Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-12-770350-3, OCLC 2911020

Iktar qari

·        Rathje, William; Shanks, Michael; Witmore, Christoper (2013). Archaeology in the Making. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-63480-9.

·        Hodder, Ian; Shanks, Michael; Alexandri, Alexandar; Buchili, Victor; Carman, John; Last, Jonathan; Lucas, Gavin (2008). "Interpreting Archaeology: Finding Meaning in the Past". Routledge. London.

·        Olsen, Bjørnar; Shanks, Michael; Webmoor, Timothy; Witmore, Christopher (2012). "Archaeology: The Discipline of Things". University of California Press. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London.

·        Shanks, Michael (1992). Experiencing the Past: On the Character of Archaeology. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-203-97363-1.

·        Archaeology (rivista)

·        Lewis Binford - New Perspectives in Archaeology (1968) ISBN 0-202-33022-2

·        Glyn Daniel – A Short History of Archaeology (1991)

·        Kevin Greene – Introduction to Archaeology (1983)

·        Thomas Hester, Harry Shafer, and Kenneth L. Feder – Field Methods in Archaeology 7th edition (1997)

·        Ian Hodder & Scott Hutson – "Reading the Past" 3rd. edition (2003)

·        Hutchings Rich, La Salle Marina (2014), "Teaching Anti-Colonial Archaeology", Archaeologies, 10 (1): 27–69, doi:10.1007/s11759-014-9250-y, S2CID 154800430

·        International Journal of South American Archaeology - IJSA (magazine)

·        Internet Archaeology, e-journal

·        C.U. Larsen - Sites and Monuments (1992)

·        Adrian Praetzellis – Death by Theory, AltaMira Press (2000). ISBN 0-7425-0359-3 ISBN 978-0-7425-0359-5

·        Colin Renfrew & Paul Bahn – Archaeology: theories, methods and practice, 2nd edition (1996)

·        Smekalova, T.N.; Voss O.; & Smekalov S.L. (2008). "Magnetic Surveying in Archaeology. More than 10 years of using the Overhauser GSM-19 gradiometer". Wormianum.

·        David Hurst Thomas – Archaeology, 3rd. edition (1998)

·        Robert J. Sharer & Wendy Ashmore – Archaeology: Discovering our Past 2nd edition (1993)

·        Bruce Trigger – "A History of Archaeological Thought" 2nd. edition (2007)

·        Alison Wylie – Thinking From Things: Essays in the Philosophy of Archaeology, University of California Press, Berkeley CA, 2002